Tabloid PULSA

Makalah Bioteknologi

Minggu, 03 Juni 2012


PEMANFAATAN BIOTEKNOLOGI DALAM KEHIDUPAN SEHARI-HARI

Mata Kuliah: Ilmu Alamiah DAsar



Disusun Oleh :

 Nama : Herni Asih
NIM     : 11003105
                                                            Kelas  : B


Program Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia
Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan
Universitas Ahmad Dahlan
Yogyakarta
2012





BAB I
PENDAHULUAN
A.     LATAR BELAKANG MASALAH

Biotekhnologi adalah terapan biologi yang melibatkan disilin ilmu mikrobilogi, biokimia, genetika, dan biologi monokuler.definisi bioteknologi secara klasik atau konvensional adalah teknologi yang memanfaatkan agen hayati atau bagian-bagiannya untuk menghasilkan barang dan jasa dalam skala industri untuk memenuhi kebutuhan manusia. Sedangkan jika ditinjau secara modern, bioteknolofi adalah pemanfaatan agen hayati atau bagian-bagian yang sudah direkayasa secara in vitro untuk mrenghasilkan barang dan jasa pada skala industri.
Bioteknologi dikembangkan untuk meningkatkan nilai bahan mentah dengan memanfaatkan kemampuan mikroorganisme atau bagian-bagiannya misalnya bakteri dan kapang. Selain itu bioteknolog juga memanfaatkan sel tumbuhan atau sel hewan yang dibiakkan sebagai bahan dasar sebagai proses industri.
Penerapan bioteknologi pada umumnya mencakup produksi sel atau biomassa dan perubahan atau ransformasi kimia yang diinginkan. Transformasi kimia itu lebih lanjut dapat dibagi menjadi dua sub bagian, yakni:
1.   Pembentukan suatu produk akhir yang siinginkan, contohnya enzim anti biotik, asam orgainik dan steroid.
2.   Penguraian bahan sisa produksi, contohnya buangan air limbah, destruksi buangan industri, atau tumpahan minyak.
Dewasa ini, penerapan bioteknologi sangat penting diberbagai bidang, misalnya di bidang pengolahan bahan pangan, farmasi, kedokteran, pengolahan limbah dan pertambangan.
           
B.     RUMUSAN MASALAH

1.   Bagaimana pemanfaatan Biotekhnologi dalam kehidupan sehari-hari?
2.   Apakah dampak negatif  Bioteknologi?




BAB II
PEMBAHASAN

       Bioteknologi dapat diartikan sebagai pemanfaatan prinsip-prinsip ilmiah dan teknologi dengan  menggunakan makhluk hidup sebagai alat bantu untuk menghasilkan produk atau jasa guna kepentingan manusia. Bioteknologi bukanlah suatu disiplin ilmu melainkan penerapan ilmu (suatu teknik dalam biologi). Dalam bioteknologi, makhluk hidup digunakan untuk menghasilkan produk atau jasa dengan alasan karena makhluk hidup:

1.   Senantiasa berkembangbiak dan dapat dibiakkan (terbaharukan)
2.   Mudah diperoleh
3.   Sifatnya dapat diubah-ubah sesuai kebutuha
4.   Dapat menghasilkan berbagai macam produk yang dibutuhkan

Bioteknologi Konvensional
Pemanfaatan makhluk hidup untuk menghasilkan produk atau jasa sudah banyak dilakukan sejak dulu. Di Indonesia, orang telah lama mengenal proses pembuatan tape, tuak dan tempe dengan menggunakan mikroorganisme

1.      Pemanfaatan Biotekhnologi dalam kehidupan sehari-hari:

Ø  Pada bidang pangan

     Bioteknologi memainkan peranan penting dalam bidang pangan yaitu dengan memproduksi makanan dengan bantuan mikroba (tempe,roti,keju,yoghurt,kecap,dll)
Berikut tabel penerapan bioteknologi pada bidang pangan:

NO
PRODUK
BAHAN MENTAH
MICRO ORGANISME

1.
2.
Produk dari Susu
Keju
Susu Fermentasi (Yoghurt)

Susu
Susu kental

Streptococcus sp.
Lactobacillus sp.


3.
4.
Produk dari Limbah
Protein Sel Tunggal (PST)
Mikoprotein

Molase dan garam amonium
Sampah Organik

Saccharomyces cerevisae
Fusarium graminearum


5.
6.
7.

8.
9.
10.
Produk dari nabati
Tempe
Kecap
Tape

Anggur
Nata de Coco
Roti
Kedelai
Kedelai
Beras ketan atau singkong
Buah anggur
Air kelapa
Tepung beras

Rhizopus sp.
Aspergillus sp.
Rhizopus, Aspergillus

Saccharomyces sp.
Acetobacter xylinum
Saccharomyces cereviceae


Ø  Bidang Kesehatan

     Bioteknologi juga dimanfaatkan untuk berbagai keperluan misalnya dalam pembuatan antibodi monoklonal, pembuatan vaksin, terapi gen dan pembuatan antibiotik. Proses penambahan DNA asing pada bakteri merupaka prospek untuk memproduksi hormon atau obat-obatan di dunia kedokteran. Contohnya pada produksi hormon insulin, hormon pertumbuhan dan zat antivirus yang disebut interferon. Orang yang menderita diabetes melitus membutuhkan suplai insulin dari luar tubuh. Dengan menggunakan teknik DNA rekombinan, insulin dapat dipanen dari bakteri.
Beberapa penyakit menurun atau kelainan genetik dapat disembuhkan dengan cara menyisipkan gen yang kurang pada penderita, cara ini dikenal dengan istilah terapi gen.

Berikut penerapan bioteknologi pada bidang kesehatan:

Jenis mikroorganisme
Produk asam amino
Vitamin
Corynebacterium glutamicum
Treonin dan lisin
-
Brevibacterium sp.
Glutamat
-
Micrococcus glutamicus
lisin
-
Pseudomonas sp.
-
Vitamin B12
Propinionicbacterium
-
Vitamin B12
Ashbya gossypii
-
Riboflamin
Streptomyces oliveus
-
Kobalamin

Ø  Bidang Lingkungan

Pencemaran lingkungan merupakan salah satu isu global yang marak dibicarakan saat ini. Tingginya tingkat pencemaran akan berdampak serius terhadap kelangsungan hidup umat manusia.
Di bidang lingkungan, bioteknologi diantaranya berperan dalam:
1.    Menghasilkan energi berupa bahan bakar yang ramah lingkungan, misalnya etanol dan biogas (gas metana)
2.    Pengolahan berbagai macam limbah, misalnya limbah industri, limbah plastik dan pencemaran air yang disebabkan oleh minyak melalui bioremediasi

Ø  Bidang Pertanian 

     Adanya perbaikan sifat tanaman dapat dilakukan dengan teknik modifikasi genetik dengan bioteknologi melalui rekayasa genetika untuk memperoleh varietas unggul, produksi tinggi, tahan hama, patogen, dan herbisida. Perkembangan Biologi Molekuler memberikan sumbangan yang besar terhadap kemajuan ilmu pemuliaan ilmu tanaman (plant breeding). Suatu hal yang tidak dapat dipungkiri bahwa perbaikan genetis melalu pemuliaan tanaman konvemsional telah memberikan kontribusi yng sangat besar dalam penyediaan pangan dunia.

     Dalam bidang pertanian telah dapat dibentuk tanaman dengan memanfaatkan mikroorganisme dalam fiksasi nitogen yang dapat membuat pupuknya sendiri sehingga dapat menguntungkan pada petani. Demikian pula terciptanya tanaman yang tahan terhadap tanah gersang. Mikroba yang di rekayasa secara genetik dapat meningkatkan hasil panen pertanian, demikian juga dalam cara lain, seperti meningkatkan kapasitas mengikat nitrogen dari bacteri Rhizobium. Keturunan bacteri yang telah disempurnakan atau diperbaiki dapat meningkatkan hasil panen kacang kedelai sampai 50%. Rekayasa genetik lain sedang mencoba mengembangkan turunan dari bacteri Azotobacter yang melekat pada akar tumbuh bukan tumbuhan kacang-kacangan (seperti jagung) dan mengembangbiakan, membebaskan tumbuhan jagung dari ketergantungan pada kebutuhan pupuk amonia (pupuk buatan). 

     Hama tanaman merupakan salah satu kendala besar dalam budidaya tanaman pertanian. Untuk mengatasinya, selama ini digunakan pestisida. Namun ternyata pestisida banyak menimbulkan berbagai dampak negatif, antara lain matinya organigme nontarget, keracunan bagi hewan dan manusia, serta pencemaran lingkungan. Oleh karena itu, perlu dicari terobosan untuk mengatasi masalah, tersebut dengan cara yang lebih aman. Kita mengetahui bahwa mikroorganisme yang terdapat di alam sangat banyak, dan setiap jenis mikroorganisme tersebut memiliki sifat yang berbeda-beda. Dari sekian banyak jenis mikroorganisme, ada suatu kelompok yang bersifat patogenik (dapat menyebabkan penyakit) pada hama tertentu, namun tidak menimbulkan penyakit bagi makhluk hidup lain. Contoh mikroorganisme tersebut adalah bakteri Bacillus thuringiensis. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa Bacillus thuringiensis mampu menghasilkan suatu protein yang bersifat toksik bagi serangga, terutama seranggga dari ordo Lepidoptera. Protein ini bersifat mudah larut dan aktif menjadi menjadi toksik, terutama setelah masuk ke dalam saluran pencemaan serangga. Bacillus thuringiensis mudah dikembangbiakkan, dan dapat dimafaatkan sebagai biopestisida pembasmi hama tanaman. Pemakaian biopestisida ini diharapkan dapat mengurangi dampak negatif yang timbul dari pemakaian pestisida kimia. 

     Dengan berkembangnya bioteknologi, sekarang dapat diperoleh cara yang lebih efektif lagi untuk membasmi hama. Pada saat ini sudah dikembangkan tanaman transgenik yang resisten terhadap hama. Tanaman transgenik diperoleh dengan cara rekayasa genetika. Gen yang mengkode pembentukan protein toksin yang dimiliki oleh B. thuringiensis dapat diperbanyak dan disisipkan ke dalam sel beberapa tanaman budidaya. Dengan cara ini, diharapkan tanaman tersebut mampu menghasilkan protein yang bersifat toksis terhadap serangga sehingga pestisida tidak diperlukan lagi.

Ø  Bidang Peternakan 

     Penerapan bioteknologi pada peternakan contohnya adalah hewan transgenik dan hormon bovin somatotropin.

1.   Hewan Transgenik
            Hewan yang diberi perlakuan rekayasa genetika disebut hewan transgenik. Pada hewan-hewan tersebut disisipkan gen-gen tertentu yang dibutuhakan manusia. Sebagi contohnya adalah domba transgenik. DNA domba tersebut telah disisipi dengan gen manusia yang disubut dengan faktor VII ( merupakan protein pembeku darah). Dengan adanya penyisipan tersebut domba mneghasilkan susu yang mengandung faktor VIII yang dapat dimurnikan untuk menolong penderita hemofilia.
Rekayasa genitika pada hewan juga dapat membantu melestarikan spsies langka. Sebagai contoh sel telur zebra yang sudah dibuahi lalu ditanam pada kuda spesies lain. Spesies lain yang dipinjam rahimnya disebut surrogate. Anak zebra akan lahir dari kuda surrogate. Hal yang sama sudah diterapkan pada keledai yang hampir punah di Australia.

Teknik pelestarian dengan rekayasa genetika sangat berguna karena:

a.   Induk dari spesies biasa dapat melahirkan spesies langka.
b.   Telur hewan langka yang sudah dibuahidapat dibekukan. Lalu disimpan bertahun-tahun, bahkan setelah induknya mati. Jika sudah ditemukan surrogate yang sesuai, telur tadi ditransplatasikan.

2.   Hormon Bovine Somatotrophin (Hotmon BST)

Dengan rekayasa genetika juga dapat diproduksi hormon pertumbuhan hewan, yaitu hormon BST (Bovine Somatotrophin)

Caranya adalah sebagai berikut:

a.   Plasmid bakteri E. coli di[otong dengan enzim endonuklease.
b.   Gen somatotrophin diisolasi dari sel sapi.
c.   Gen somatotrophin disisipkan ke plasmid bakteri.
d.   Plasmid dimasukkan lagi ke plasmid bakteri.
e.   Bakteri yang menghasilkan bovine somatotrophin ditumbuhkan dalam tangki fermentasi.
f.    Bovine somatotrophin diambil dari bakteri dan dimurnikan.
(Reven et.al. 2005)

Ø  Bidang Hukum

            Dengan teknologi DNA, menawarkan aplikasi bagi kepentingan forensik. Pada kriminalitas dengan kekerasan, darah atau jaringan lain dalam jumlah kecil dapat tertinggal di tempat kejadian perkara. Jika ada perkosaan, air mani dalam jumlah kecil dapat ditemukan dalam tubuh korban. Melalui pengujian sidik jari DNA (DNA finngerprint), dapat diidentifikasi pelaku dengan derajat kepastian yang tinggi karena urutan DNA setiap orang itu unik (kecuali untuk kembar identik). Sampel darah atau jaringan lain yang dibutuhkan dalam tes DNA sangat sedikit (kira-kira 1000 sel). 

     DNA fingerprint merupakan satu langkah lebih maju dalam proses pengungkapan kejahatan di Indonesia. Keakuaratan hasil yang hampir mencapai 100% menjadikan metode DNA fingerprint selangkah lebih maju dibandingkan dengan proses biometri yang telah lama digunakan kepolisian untuk identifikasi.

Ø  Pengolahan Limbah

     Sampah atau limbah merupakan bahan pencemar lingkungan yang mengancam kehidupan. Oleh kerena itu harus ada upaya penanggulangan limbah.
     Penanggulangan sampah dapat dilakukan dengan berbagai cara, misalnya ditimbun, dibakar dan didaur ulang. Diantara semua cara itu, cara yang terbaik adalah dengan cara didaur ulang.
     Slah satu contoh proses daur ulang sampah yang telah diuji pada beberapa sampah tumbuhan adalah proses pirolisis, yaitu proses dekomposisi sampah dengan suhu tinggi pada kondisi tanpa oksigen (anaerob).
     Denag cara ini sampah dapat diubah menjadi arang, gas (misalnya metana), dan bahan anorganik. Bahan-bahan tersebut dapat dimanfaatkan kembali sebagai bahan bakar. Keunggulan dari bahan bakar hasil proses ini adalah kandungan sulfur yang rendah sehingga dapat mengurangi pencemaran udara.
     Bahan dari pembakaran makroorganik (dari hewan, tumbuhan, manusia), denagn bantuan mikroorganisme (misalnya bakteri dan jamur), dengan bantuan hewan-hewan kecil disebut kompos. Dalam pembuatan kompossangat diperlukan mokroorganisme. Jenis mikroorganisme yang diperlukan dalam pembuatan kompos tergantung pada bahan organik yang digunakan serta proses yang berlangsung (misalnya proses itu secara aerob atau anaerob).
     Selama proses pengomposan, terjadi penguraian terhadap selulosa dan pembentukan asam organik, terutama asam humat. Asam humat penting dalam pembentukan humus. Hasil pengomposan terutama bermanfaat sebagai pupuk.
     Dengan perkembangan bioteknologi, kini pencemaran lingkungan dapat semakin dikutangi dengan berbagai teknik pengolahan limbah, misalnya pengolahan minyak, air limbah dan plastik.

1.    Pengolahan Air Limbah

Dengan bioteknologi pengolahan limbah menjadi lebih terkontrol dan efektif. Pemrosesan air limbah oleh pabrik bertujuan untuk menghilangkan zat pencemar, baik pencemar biologis maupun kimaiwi, yang mungkin membahayakan manusia atau lingkungan. Mekanismenya adalah:
a.    Menghilqnhkqn sisa-sisa akhir benda padat yang tersuspensi.
b.    Menghilangkan gangguan yang tidak dikehendaki.
c.    Manghilangkan rasa, warna, bau, dan mengurangi kandungan zat yang terlarut.
Prinsip kerja dalam pengolahan limbah melibatkan berbagai fasilitas, dan prosesnya secara umum adalah sbagai berikut:
a.   Pengumpulan
Limbah dari rumah, industri, dan dari aktifitas lainya disalurkan ke jaringan saluran bawah tanah, lalu dikumpulkan ke pusat pengolahan.
b.   Pemilahan
Limbah yang msauk ke tempat pengolahan dilewatkan pada lempengan metal yang berfungsi memisahkan potongan kayu, kertas dan bahan-bahan yang besar supaya tidak masuk mesin.

c.   Pengaliran Limbah
Limbah dialirkan lewat lubang-lubang kecil. Krikil dan pasir pada larutan limbah disaring, dicuci, lalu dikumpulkan dan digunakan untuk mengisi lubang-lubang di tanah.
d.   Pengendapan
Limbah dialirkan ke tangki-tangki yang lebih besar dimana bahan-bahan yang padat mengendap didasar tangki yang membentuk endapan kasar. Endapan tersebut kemudian dipindah ke tangki pencerna dengan tenaga listrik.
e.   Proses Aerob
cairan yang diukeluarkan dari tangki penempatan primer dimasukkan ke alat pengolahan sekunder.di dalam alat tersebut, mikroorganisme seperti bakteri, jamur dan protista memecah materi organik menjadi mineral, gas dan air.
f.    Kucuran Air
Air dari tangki-tangki penempatan cukup bersih untuk dibuang ke sungai. Supaya air lebih bersih dan dapat digunakan untuk keperluan tertentu maka air disaring melalui alat yang terbuat dari pasir halus dan arang aktif, lalu ditambah klorin untuk mencegah pertumbuhan organisme yang masih tersisa.
g.   Proses Anaerob
h.   Sumber Enerdi
i.    Pembuangan Sampah

2.      Dampak negatif  bioteknologi

Ø  Dampak terhadap kesehatan 

Produk-produk hasil rekayasa genetika memiliki resiko potensial sebagai berikut: 

a. Gen sintetik dan produk gen baru yang berevolusi dapat menjadi racun dan atau imunogenik untuk manusia dan hewan. 
b. Rekayasa genetik tidak terkontrol dan tidak pasti, genom bermutasi dan bergabung, adanya kelainan bentuk generasi karena racun atau imunogenik, yang disebabkan tidak stabilnya DNA rekayasa genetik. 
c. Virus di dalam sekumpulan genom yang menyebabkan penyakit mungkin diaktifkan oleh rekayasa genetik. 
d. Penyebaran gen tahan antibiotik pada patogen oleh transfer gen horizontal, membuat tidak menghilangkan infeksi. 
e. Meningkatkan transfer gen horizontal dan rekombinasi, jalur utama penyebab penyakit.
f. DNA rekayasa genetik dibentuk untuk menyerang genom dan kekuatan sebagai promoter sintetik yang dapat mengakibatkan kanker dengan pengaktifan oncogen (materi dasar sel-sel kanker). 
g. Tanaman rekayasa genetik tahan herbisida mengakumulasikan herbisida dan meningkatkan residu herbisida sehingga meracuni manusia dan binatang seperti pada tanaman. 

Ø  Dampak terhadap lingkungan 

            Saat ini, umat manusia mampu memasukkan gen ke dalam organisme lain dan membentuk "makhluk hidup baru" yang belum pernah ada. Pengklonan, transplantasi inti, dan rekombinasi DNA dapat memunculkan sifat baru yang belum pernah ada sebelumnya. Pelepasan organisme-organisme transgenik ke alam telah menimbulkan dampak berupa pencemaran biologis di lingkungan kita. Setelah 30 tahun Organisme Hasil Rekayasa Genetik (OHRG) atau Genetically Modified Organism (GMO), lebih dari cukup kerusakan yang ditimbulkannya terdokumentasikan dalam laporan International Specialty Products. Di antaranya: 

a. Tidak ada perluasan lahan, sebaliknya lahan kedelai rekayasa genetik menurun sampai 20 persen dibandingkan dengan kedelai non-rekayasa genetik. Bahkan kapas Bt di India gagal sampai 100 persen. 
b. Tidak ada pengurangan pengunaan pestisida, sebaliknya penggunaan pestisida tanaman rekayasa genetik meningkat 50 juta pound dari 1996 sampai 2003 di Amerika Serikat.
c. Tanaman rekayasa genetik merusak hidupan liar, sebagaimana hasil evaluasi pertanian Kerajaan Inggris. 
d. Bt tahan pestisida dan roundup tahan herbisida yang merupakan dua tanaman rekayasa genetik terbesar praktis tidak bermanfaat. 
e.  Area hutan yang luas hilang menjadi kedelai rekayasa genetik di Amerika Latin, sekitar 15 hektar di Argentina sendiri, mungkin memperburuk kondisi karena adanya permintaan untuk biofuel. Meluasnya kasus bunuh diri di daerah India, meliputi 100.000 petani antara 1993-2003 dan selanjutnya 16.000 petani telah meninggal dalam waktu setahun.
f.    Pangan dan pakan rekayasa genetik berkaitan dengan adanya kematian dan penyakit di lapangan dan di dalam tes laboratorium.
g.   Herbisida roundup mematikan katak, meracuni plasenta manusia dan sel embrio. Roundup digunakan lebih dari 80 persen semua tanaman rekayasa genetik yang ditanam di seluruh dunia. 
h.   Kontaminasi transgen tidak dapat dihindarkan. Ilmuwan menemukan penyerbukan tanaman rekayasa genetik pada non-rekayasa genetik sejauh 21 kilometer. 

Ø  Dampak terhadap etika moral 

     Penyisipan gen makhluk hidup lain yang tidak berkerabat dianggap telah melanggar hukum alam dan kurang dapat diterima oleh masyarakat. Pemindahan gen manusia ke dalam tubuh hewan dan sebaliknya sudah mendapatkan reaksi keras dari berbagai kalangan. Permasalahan produk-produk transgenik tidak berlabel, membawa konskuensi bagi kalangan agama tertentu. Terlebih lagi teknologi kloning yang akan dilakukan pada manusia. 
     Bioteknologi yang berkaitan dengan reproduksi manusia sering membawa masalah baru, karena masyarakat belum menerimanya. berikut ini beberapa contoh mengenai masalah ini: 

a.    seorang nenek melahirkan cucunya dari embrio cucu yang dibekukan dalam tabung pembeku karena ibunya tidak mampu hamil karena penyakit tertentu. Kemudian di masyarakat timbul sebuah pertanyaan "anak siapa bayi tersebut?" 
b.    pasangan suami istri menunda kehamilan. sperma suami dititipkan di bank sperma. beberapa tahun setelah suami meninggal, sang janda ingin mengandung anak dari almarhum suaminya. Dia mengambil sperma yang dititipkan di bank sperma. bagaimanakah staus dari anak tersebut ?, bolehkah wanita tersebut mengandung anak dari suami yang telah meninggal ?. 
c.    meminta sperma oranng lain di bank sperma untuk difertilisasi di dalam rahim wanita merupakan pelanggaran atau bukan ? 

Ø  Dampak ekonomi 

            Terdapat suatu kecenderungan bahwa bioteknologi tidak terlepas dari muatan ekonomi. Muatan ekonomi tersebut terlihat dari adanya hak paten bagi produk-produk hasil rekayasa genetik, sehingga penguasaan bioteknologi hanya pada lembaga-lembaga tertentu saja. Hal ini memaksa petani-petani kecil untuk membeli bibit kepada perusahaan perusahaan yang memiliki hak paten. Produk Bioteknologi dapat merugikan peternak-peternak tradisional seperti pada kasus penggunaan hormon pertubuhan sapi hingga naik sebesar 20%. hormon tersebut hanya mampu dibeli oleh perusahaan peternakan yang bermodal besar. Hal tersebut menimbulkan suatu kesenjangan ekonomi. 
Menyikapi adanya dampak negatif bioteknologi, perlu adanya tindakan-tindakan untuk menanggulangi meluasnya dampak tersebut, antara lain sebagai berikut: 
     Sejak Stanley Cohen melakukan rekombinasi DNA tahun 1972, telah dikeluarkan peraturan agar ada ijin atau rekomendasi sebelum para pakar melakukan rekombinasi. Ini dilakukan agar rekombinasi DNA yang dilakukan tidak digunakan untuk tujuan yang negatif. 

1.  Pemerintah Amerika Serikat melarang cloning manusia apapun alasannya. Namun tidak semua negara mempunyai peraturan seperti Amerika Serikat. Seperti Singapura, tidak melarang cloning tersebut. 
2. Undang-undang yang melarang pembuatan senjata biologis yang berlaku untuk semua negara di dunia. 
3. Selain undang-undang dan peraturan, prosedur kerja di laboratorium telah membatasi kemungkinan terjadinya dampak negatif. Misalnya kondisi laboratorium harus suci hama (aseptik), limbah yang keluar dari laboratorium diolah terlebih dahulu. 
4. Pengawasan dan pemberian sertifikasi bahwa produk-produk yang berlabel bioteknologi tidak menyebabkan gangguan pada kesehatan manusia. 
5. Penerapan bioteknologi harus tetap berdasarkan nilai-nilai moral dan etika karena semua makhluk hidup mempunyai kepentingan yang sama dalam menjaga "ekosistem manusia" 
6. Penegakkan di bidang hukum dengan jalan menaati UU No.12 tahun 1992 tentang sistem budidaya pertanian, dan UU No.4 tahhun 1994 tentang pengesahan konvensi PBB mengenai keanekaragaman hayati. Bagian penjelasan umum, sub bab Manfaat Konvensi butir 6 menyatakan bahwa "pengembangan dan penaanganan bioteknologi agar Indonesia tidak dijadikan ajang ujicoba pelepasan GMO oleh negara lain. 
7. Pada tingkat nasional, pemerintah Indonesia telah mengeluarkan surat keputusan bersama (SKB) Nomor 998.I/Kpts/OT.210/9/99;790.a/Kpts-XI/1999;1145A/MENKES/SKB/IX/1999;015A/Meneg PHOR/09/1999 tentang Keamanan Hayati dan Keamanan Pangan Produk Pertanian Hasil Rekayasa Genetika Tanaman. Surat Keputusan bersama tersebut melibatkan Menteri Pertanian, Menteri Kehutanan dan Perkebunan, Menteri Kesehatan, dan Menteri Negara Pangan dan Hortikultura. Dalam keputusan tersebut mengharuskan adanya pengujian tanaman pangan hasil rekayasa genetika sebelum dikomersialkan sesuai standar protokol WHO. Standar protokol WHO tersebut meliputi uji toksisitas, alergenitas, dan kandungan nutrisi. 
8. Pada tingkat internasional, pemerintah Amerika Serikat misalnya telah membentuk badan khusus yang bernama FDA (Food and Drugs Administration). FDA bertugas menangani keamanan pangan, termasuk produk rekayasa genetika. Badan ini telah membuat pedoman keamanan pangan yang bertujuan untuk memberikan kepastian bahwa produk baru termasuk hasil rekayasa genetika, harus aman untuk dikonsumsi sebelum dikomersialkan. Badan Internasional Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) juga telah mengeluarkan beberapa petunjuk rekomendasi mengenai bioteknologi dan keamanan pangan. Beberapa rekomendasi yang dikeluarkan FAO adalah sebagai berikut : 
a.   Pengaturan keamanan pangan yang komprehensif sehingga dapat melindungi kesehatan konsumen. Setiap negara harus dapat menempatkan peraturan tersebut seimbang dengan perkembangan teknologi. 
b.   Pemindahan gen dari pangan yang menyebabkan alerg hendaknya dihindari kecuali telah terbukti bahwa gen yang dipindahkan tidak menunjukkan alergi. 
c.   Pemindahan gen dari bahan pangan yang mengandung alergen tidak boleh dikomersialkan.
d.   Senyawa alergen pangan dan sifat dari alergen yang menetapkan kekebalan tubuh dianjurkan untuk diidentifikasi. 
e.   Negara berkembang harus dibantu dalam pendidikan dan pelatihan tentang keamanan pangan yang ditimbulkan oleh modifikasi genetika. 


v  Pelaksanaan kloning harus mempertimbangkan beberapa prosedur, antara lain :

a.   Riset klinis harus disesuaikan dengan prinsip moral dan ilmu pengetahuan serta didasarkan atas eksperimen dengan fakta-fakta ilmiah yang sudah pasti. 
b.   Riset klinis hendaknya diadakan secara sah oleh ahli yang berkompeten dan di bawah pengawasan tenaga medis yang ahli di bidangnya.
c.   Setiap proyek riset klinis hendaknya didahului oleh suatu observasi yang cermat terhadap bahaya yang mungkin terjadi dibandingkan dengan manfaat yang diperoleh. 
d.   Dokter seharusnya memberikan perhatian khusus dalam menjalankan riset klinis; yang mengubah kepribadian orang menjadi objek, akibat obat-obatan, atau prosedur percobaan.




BAB III
PENUTUP

A.     KESIMPULAN
            Berdasarkan makalah yang telah disusun, maka dapat diketahui bahwa Bioteknologi adalah penerapan ilmu (suatu teknik dalam biologi).
            Bioteknologi dapat diartikan sebagai pemanfaatan prinsip-prinsip ilmiah dan teknologi dengan  menggunakan makhluk hidup sebagai alat bantu untuk menghasilkan produk atau jasa guna kepentingan manusia. Bioteknologi bukanlah suatu disiplin ilmu melainkan penerapan ilmu (suatu teknik dalam biologi).
            Dengan perkembangan bioteknologi, maka manusia dapat menafaatkan suatu bahan yang sederhana menjadi barang atau bahan yang lebih bermanfaat. Selain mempunyai kelebihan bioteknologi juga mempunyai kekurangan atau efek negatif. Efek ini berpengaruh pada berbagai bidang, diantaranya:
a.    Bidang Kesehatan;
b.    Bidang Lingkungan;
c.    Bidang Etika dan Moral;
d.    Bidang Ekonomi.



DAFTAR PUSTAKA
3.    Pratiwi.D. A., Maryati,Sri., Srikini,Suharno, S. Bambang.2007. Biologi. Jakarta.Erlangga.
















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